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STATUS REPORTS

State of Curaçao’s Coral Reefs 1973-2045

What is this report about (and not)

In October 2025, the latest information available on the state of and processes affecting coral reefs around Curacao was presented to various ministries (e.g., VVRP, MEO, GMN) and local organizations involved in the tourism industry (e.g., CHATA, CPA, CTB). These sessions were sparked by the drastic decline of coral reefs around Curacao and the availability of new information on drivers underlying this decline that in recent year was collected by various, mostly international universities and research organizations. At the same time, Curacao faces an increase in tourism numbers while it also wants to stay a “paradise above and below the surface”. Especially this latter ambition is difficult to rhyme with the ongoing decline of reef communities along the majority of Curacao’s leeward shore.

A (relatively) short summary of the existing information on Curaçaoan reefs seems therefore timely. This summary should concisely overview the knowledge and insights that could be useful to those in positions to take action. Healthy reefs and clean waters benefit locals and visitors, beachgoers and fishers and young and old. While measures to reverse the rapid decline of coral reefs around our island will be challenging and sometimes expensive, decisions on what actions could be taken (or not) should be based on the best information available, which can be found in this report. It is important to realize that Curacao still has some of the best reefs left in the Caribbean which are still growing (and in some other places as well) and that therefore not all is as “gloomy” as commonly presented by many scientists and/ or conservation groups. Curacao is somewhat unique in this aspect within the region and functional reefs would definitely distinguish the island from many others, where reefs have all but disappeared at present already.

This report follows the principle that “information” and “decision making” are two different fields. All too often scientists and “conservationists” are unaware of e.g., policy and law making, the inherent workings of government (“the government is not doing anything to stop or reverse this decline!”), whereas, vice versa, many in government simply do not have time (or access) to read the scientific studies that could be relevant to their jobs (“why can’t anyone make a simple overview of all this? I don’t have time to read 100+ scientific studies!”). This report thus provides the main messages arising from the growing number of scientific studies conducted on Curacaoan reefs, but will steer away from subsequent policy recommendations as this is the area of expertise and responsibility of the Curacaoan government. Recommendations on technical aspects (e.g., design of water treatment facilities) or financing mechanisms (“how are we going to pay for it all?”) are also not included in this report. Only when clear examples exist from other Caribbean locations or in case work to improve the quality of Curacaoan reefs has already started, are such cases included here.

During aforementioned presentations, attendees were asked to provide questions relevant to the (decline of) Curacaoan reefs and the tasks resulting from their respective jobs. This was to ensure that this report catered to the need of those in positions to facilitate actual change rather than “overview” science’s accomplishments, which are often of no interest to policy, management etc. A total of 178 questions were received that were very similar in some cases and we condensed them to the questions starting each paragraph below. When questions concerned aspects addressed in existing policy documents (e.g., those resulting from the collaboration with the Wait institute) or are already addressed in local law (e.g., can you still use spearguns in Curacao?), they were not included in this report, nor were questions concerning specific aspects of government operations, functionality and (lack of) past achievements (e.g., “How long has the Government been developing policy regarding water quality and what has come out of this process?, Does the Kingdom have a role in operationalizing conservations law in Curacao?, Which Ministries have “stopped” earlier ambitions to produce effective nature legislation on the island?).

The format of this report obviously does not provide space to address nuances and some exceptions. Regardless, since policy or conservation action should not depend on such details, we decided on moving forward with this format and hope that the “question driven” format can steer people directly to those sections relevant to them. We have included references to original data sources throughout this report for those seeking more detailed information. This report foremost strives to convey the threads and urgency (and to lesser degree opportunities) relevant to Curacao’s ambition to be “a paradise below the surface”. We also welcome feedback so this document could become a “living document” in the future based on the input and concerns of all.

PEER REVIEWED PUBLICATIONS SEALINK PROJECT

Baranco VS, Schellenberg L, Mienis F, Brussaard CP, Haas AF, de Nooijer LJ. Seasonal changes in bay water column properties and their influence on the distribution of dissolved and particulate substances along the south coast of Curaçao (Caribbean Sea). Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2025 Mar 1;212:117545. Click here for pdf.
Bertoncelj V, Mienis F, Stocchi P, van Sebille E. Flow patterns, hotspots, and connectivity of land-derived substances at the sea surface of Curaçao in the southern Caribbean. Ocean Science. 2025 May 27;21(3):945-64. Click here for pdf.
Candy AS, Taylor Parkins SK, Van Duyl FC, Mueller B, Arts MG, Barnes W, Carstensen M, Scholten YJ, El-Khaled YC, Wild C, Wegley Kelly L. Small-scale oxygen distribution patterns in a coral reef. Frontiers in Marine Science. 2023 Apr 11;10:1135686. Click here for pdf.
Kalinski JC, Pakkir Mohamed Shah AK, Ruiz Brandão da Costa B, Farrell SP, Schellenberg L, Graves LG, Schramm T, Stincone P, Koester I, Stephens BM, Torres RR. Widespread presence of anthropogenic compounds in marine dissolved organic matter. Nature Geoscience. 2026 Mar 16:1-0. Click here for pdf.
Kruijssen TP, Wit MR, van Breukelen BM, van der Ploeg M, Bense VF. Hydrogeological conceptualization of a small island groundwater system using historical data. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences. 2024 Jan;103:e27. Click here for pdf.
Schellenberg L, Bertoncelj V, Sánchez Barranco V, Boer MD, Petras D, Nelson CE, Mueller B, Vermeij MJA, Mienis F, Brussaard CPD, Haas AF. The distribution of xenobiotics of terrigenous origin in the nearshore waters of a Caribbean island. Environmental Science & Technology. 2026. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6c04986. Click here for pdf.
Shaikh HM, Van den Bremt J, Schellenberg L, Fernández Bejarano SJ, De Rijcke M, Brussaard CP. Refining Viral Production Estimation. Environmental Microbiology Reports. 2025 Dec;17(6):e70258. Click here for pdf.
Steward R, Chopin P, Verburg PH. Supporting spatial planning with a novel method based on participatory Bayesian networks: An application in Curaçao. Environmental Science & Policy. 2024 Jun 1;156:103733. Click here for pdf.
Steward R, Chopin P, Verburg PH. Impact-driven spatial planning for future-proofing small island states: A scenario-based land model analysis in Curaçao. Applied Geography. 2025 May 1;178:103604. Click here for pdf.
Trouwloon DT, Van Laerhoven F, Hegger DL, Driessen PP. Aligning research uptake with context: Supporting researchers’ decisions towards context-appropriate research uptake strategies. Environmental Science & Policy. 2024 Sep 1;159:103822. Click here for pdf.
Valcarcel A, O’Callaghan J, Vermeij MJA. Interplay of wind-driven processes and subsurface oscillations along the leeward coastline of a tropical reef island. Frontiers in Marine Science. 2025 Jun 4;12:1546596. Click here for pdf.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, Visser PM, de Baat ML, Vermeij MJA, de Goeij JM. Macroalgal δ15N indicates land-derived elemental pollution on nearshore coral reefs of Curaçao, southern Caribbean. Marine Pollution Bulletin 2026. 223: 118967. Click here for pdf.
Van Duyl FC, Post VE, van Breukelen BM, Bense V, Visser PM, Meesters EH, Koeniger P, Vermeij MJA. Composition and distribution of the near-shore waters bordering the coral reefs of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao in the Southern Caribbean. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 2024. 209:117297. Click here for pdf.
Vermeij MJA, Van Kemenade ZR, Visser PM. Nutrient pulses increase the life span of two Caribbean macroalgae. Journal of Aquatic Plants 100005. Click here for pdf.
Wit MR, van Egmond JL, Kruijssen TP, Bense VF, van Breukelen BM. Hydrogeochemical signatures and human impact: A comprehensive analysis of groundwater quality on the semi-arid island of Curaçao. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies. 2025 Aug 1;60:102555. Click here for pdf.

PREPRINTS

Note to journalists: Preprints are early, publicly available versions of academic research papers that have not yet been peer-reviewed or formally published in a journal. They are shared on online "preprint servers" to speed up the dissemination of research and allow for immediate feedback from the (scientific) community.Preprints are not peer-reviewed and critical errors could hence still be present in them.

Bertoncelj V, Mienis F, Van Sebille E. Ocean-to-nearshore circulation patterns around Curaçao: A southern Caribbean reef island exposed to distinct flow regimes. Authorea Preprints. 2025 Nov 14. Click here for pdf.
Bertoncelj V, Mienis F, Van Sebille E. Seasonal patterns of the Caribbean Current and its influence on the small island of Curaçao. ESS Open Archive . November 20, 2025. Click here for pdf.
Sánchez Barranco V, Bertoncelj V, Mienis F, Reichart GJ, Vermeij M, de Nooijer LJ. Environmental and anthropogenic causes for seasonal and spatial variability in dissolved substances in the coastal waters of Curaçao (Caribbean Sea). Available at SSRN 5496135. Click here for pdf.
Steward R, Chopin P, Bertoncelj V, Verburg P. Evaluating Land-Based Pressure Indicators for Coral Reef Systems: A Ridge-to-Reef Framework for Ecological Assessment. Available at SSRN 5383473. Click here for pdf.
Steward R, Chopin P, Verburg P, Bertoncelj V. Linking land-based pollution pathways to coral reef exposure and ecological response. Available at SSRN 5610776. Click here for pdf.
Rovere A, Boyden PT, Haas A, Mueller B, El-Khaled YC, Bejarano S, Wild C, Mijts E, Scicchitano G, Scardino G, Chauveau D. Unprecedented decline in modern coral reef communities could indicate the onset of the Anthropocene. Click here for pdf.

CONFERENCES: PROCEEDINGS & PRESENTATIONS

Bertoncelj V, Stocchi P, Holzhauser C, Sánchez Barranco V, Alcantar E, Candy A, Haas A, Mienis F, de Nooijer L, van Sebille E, Vermeij M. Assessing hydrodynamic processes of nearshore coral reefs: numerical modeling and field observations around the island of Curaçao. InEGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts 2022 May (pp. EGU22-13468). Click here for pdf.
Bertoncelj V, Stocchi P, Mienis F, van Sebille E. Simulating residence times of nutrients and pollutants around coral reef communities on Curaçao. Ocean Sciences Meeting 2024 New Orleans. Click here for abstract.
Bertoncelj V, Stocchi P, Holzhauser C, Sánchez Barranco V, Alcantar E, Candy A, Haas A, Mienis F, de Nooijer L,van Sebille E, Vermeij M. Assessing hydrodynamic processes of nearshore coral reefs: numerical modeling and field observations around the island of Curaçao. EGU General Assemby, 2022. Click here for Abstract.
Bertoncelj V. Circulation and connectivity around Curaçao. NWO NAC 2025, The Netherlands.
Kruijssen T, Wit M, van der Ploeg M, van Breukelen B, Vermeij M, Bense V. Quantification of submarine groundwater discharge towards coral reefs around Curaçao, a semi-arid island in the Caribbean. InEGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts 2022 May (pp. EGU22-10622). Click here for pdf.
Kruijssen TP, Castrechnini A, van der Ploeg MJ, van Breukelen B, Vermeij M, Debrot AO, Bense VF. The Sealink Research Project: submarine groundwater discharge (Sgd) affecting coral reef health around semi-arid islands in the Dutch Caribbean. IAH 2021 Book of Abstracts. 2021:276-. Click here for pdf.
Sánchez Barranco V, Barnes W, Gigli F, Mienis F, de Nooijer L. Nutrient fluxes in degrading reefs: the effect of local hydrodynamics, benthic cover and dial cycles. ECRS 2024 Italy.
Sánchez Barranco V, Mienis F, de Nooijer L. Seawater chemistry around Curaçao: Spatial patterns and the Influence of bays. Ocean Science Meeting 2024 New Orleans. Click here for abstract.
Sánchez Barranco V. Seasonal dynamics of tropical bay- and their exchange with the oceans at Curaçao and its effect on nearby coral reefs. NWO NAC 2024, The Netherlands.
Schellenberg L. Distribution of xenobiotics across the land-sea continuum on a small Caribbean Island. ECRS 2024 Italy. Click here for pdf.
Schellenberg L. Distribution of microbes and metabolites across the land-sea continuum of the Caribbean Island Curaçao. ISME19 2024, South Africa.
Schellenberg L. Xenobiotics and antibiotic resistance along the coast of Caribbean Island Curaçao. M2C2 2025, Netherlands.
Schellenberg L. Importance of land-based sampling in marine dissolved organic matter research. ASLO 2025, USA. Click here for pdf.
Steward R .Navigating the spatial trade-offs between ecosystem services in Curaçao: Land use modeling for scenario assessment. 2024 ESP Conference. Click here for pdf.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, Sánchez Barranco S, Vermeij MJA, Visser PM, de Goeij JM. Unraveling the land-to-reef continuum: Spatial distribution of stable isotope signatures of benthic reef communities along the coast of Curaçao. ICRS 2022 July.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, Visser PM, Vermeij MJA, de Goeij JM. Unraveling the land-to-reef continuum: Stable isotope signatures of benthic reef communities along the coast of Curaçao. JESIUM 2022 October.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, Visser PM, Vermeij MJA, de Goeij JM. Spatio-temporal distribution of nutrient input and its effect on coral reef food web dynamics along the coast of Curaçao. BASIS Meeting 2024 April.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, Sánchez Barranco S, Visser PM, Mienis F, de Nooijer L, de Baat ML, Vermeij MJA, de Goeij JM. The role of inland bays in channeling land-based pollutants to neighboring reefs. ECRS 2024 July.
Van de Loosdrecht NCJ, de Baat ML, Visser PM, Vermeij MJA, de Goeij JM. Tracing Chemical Pollution from Inland Bays to Coral Reefs: Investigating Distribution and Ecotoxicological Impacts SETAC North America 2025 November.
Wit MR, van Breukelen BM. Anthropogenic pollution sources and pathways on a semi-arid tropical SIDS–a hydrogeochemical study on Curaçao. InGoldschmidt 2023 Conference 2023 Jul 11. GOLDSCHMIDT. Click here for pdf.

THESES

Akkermans S. CTD Profiling to Investigate Hydrogeological Features of Curaçao. 2024. (WUR Master's Thesis). Click here for pdf.
Holzhauser C. Local scale hydrodynamics and oxygen fluctuations near coral reefs. 2022. (UU Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Houtman T. Taking Root: A Grounded Approach to Science Communication for SEALINK Curaçao. 2022. (UU Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Jacobs R. Numerical simulation of submarine groundwater discharge: A Case study in Curaçao. 2022. (WUR Master’s Thesis). Click here for pdf.
Jansen T. Eco-empowerment: Steps towards safeguarding Curaçao's coral reef. 2022. (UU Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Leiser E. Science & Practice: the case study of coral reef conservation & sewage pollution in Curaçao. 2022. (UU Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Martel K. Sustainability Framing and Assessment Methods for (Caribbean) Small Island Developing States and evaluating applicability in Curaçao. 2024. (VU Master's thesis).
Mikos M. Land use and Land Cover change trends and impacts on coral reef ecosystems of the Island of Curaçao. 2024. (VU MSc Thesis).
Neidiger L. Identifying and assessing the current status of land cover on Curaçao in relation to different planned land uses: Developing a spatial land cover classification database with QGIS. 2024. (VU Master’s Thesis).
Olland N. Exploring the drivers of land use cover change in Curaçao by combining local knowledge with spatial data. 2024. (VU Master’s Thesis).
Smink T. Stakeholders versus the stats: Investigating different representations of land use suitability in the Dutch Caribbean (Curacao). 2024. (VU BSc Thesis).
Snijders K. Urban wastewater management of Willemstad, Curaçao, and environmental implications. (TUD Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
van Egmond JL. Groundwater Quality in Curaçao. 2023. (TUD Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
van Hee, F. Tropical reef ecosystems and water quality: Substance distribution along the coast around of Curaçao and its influence on reef ecosystems. 2024. (UU/ NIOZ MSc Thesis)
van Leeuwen AF. The hydrogeology of Curaçao: an electrical resistivity study. 2022. (WUR Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Versleijen AGL. Nutrient transport through submarine groundwater discharge on Curaçao. Numerical simulation to estimate the effect of leakage from onsite sewage disposal systems. 2024. (TUD Master's thesis). Click here for pdf.
Verstappen I. Hydrogeochemical Investigation of the Groundwater of Curaçao. 2022. (WUR Master's thesis). Click here for pdf

OTHER AND VARIA

CARIBBEAN RESEARCH PROGRAMME RECEIVES BOOST OF MORE THAN 7 MILLION EUROS

January 7, 2021

During the annual consultation with the Caribbean part of the Kingdom, Ingrid van Engelshoven, the Minister of Education, Culture and Science, has announced that more than 7 million euros has been awarded to two projects within the NWO programme Caribbean Research: a Multidisciplinary Approach.
In this funding round, the emphasis is on the structural strengthening of the knowledge system and the embedding of scientific research in the Caribbean part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. NWO wants to realise that objective by means of these two large multidisciplinary research programmes that will be realised and embedded in the Caribbean region. The research programmes focus on issues that are of great societal and scientific importance for the Caribbean region, and facilitate the transfer of knowledge via education and outreach. This is the first time that NWO has funded programmes of this size in the Dutch Caribbean.
Atlantic academic platform and regional expertise center, will be developed fostering research-based education on climate challenges for the islands.

€ 3,5 MILLION AWARDED FOR DUTCH CARIBBEAN CORAL REEF RESEARCH

January 7, 2021

We know that coral reefs worldwide are in decline; remarkably little is known about how exactly this happens. That is why a major multidisciplinary research project will start in the coming years within the NWO's Caribbean Research programme under the name 'SEALINK'. For the first time, Dutch and Caribbean scientists are looking at how the coral reefs are affected by sewage water and chemicals that seep from land into the sea. This knowledge is crucial for the preservation of coral reefs and biodiversity as well as for tourism and local communities in the Caribbean part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research participates from its home base on Texel in the Netherlands, the island of St. Eustatius and with the Dutch national research vessel the RV Pelagia.